IEP quality in focus: legal, research, and practical perspectives

Christopher M. Claude; Sarah A. Nagro; Frederick J. Brigham

doi:10.64546/jaasep.587

IEP quality in focus: legal, research, and practical perspectives

Christopher M. Claude, Ph.D. (Author) Rehabilitation Research and Training Center, Virginia Commonwealth University
Sarah A. Nagro, Ed.D. (Author) Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University
Frederick J. Brigham, Ph.D (Author) Department of Special Education, George Mason University

DOI

https://doi.org/10.64546/jaasep.587

Abstract

Individualized Education Programs (IEPs) are crucial for the educational planning and service provision for students with disabilities (SWDs) in special education. Within the IEP, the Present Level of Academic Achievement and Functional Performance (PLAAFP) statement forms the basis for developing goals and interventions. Despite its importance, there is limited empirical research on the quality and consistency of PLAAFP statements. In this paper, we underscore the necessity of evaluating IEP and PLAAFP quality, tracing the evolution of special education laws and their impact on the academic and functional expectations for the individual progress of each SWD. By examining various IEP assessment rubrics and psychometric considerations, we highlight the relationship between IEP quality and student outcomes, as well as its implications for teacher preparation and retention amidst special education teacher shortages. With our findings, we advocate for further investigation into IEP quality to enhance outcomes for both SWDs and educators.

Keywords

Individualized Education Plan (IEP), Special Education, Education Policy, Progress Monitoring

References

Almond, G., & Verba, S. (1989). The civic culture: Political attitudes and democracy in five nations. Sage Publications.

Bell, T. H. (1988). The thirteenth man. A Reagan cabinet memoir. New York: The Free Press.

Billingsley, B., & Bettini, E. (2019). Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 697-744. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495

Black, D. W. (2020). Schoolhouse burning: Public education and the assault on American democracy. PublicAffairs.

Blackwell, W., Durán, J. B., & Buss, J. (2019). Students with emotional and behavioral disorders and special education due process in the United States. International Journal of Special Education, 34(1), 129-151. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1237120.pdf

Board of Educ. v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176 (1982)

Boavida, T., Aguiar, C., McWilliam, R. A., & Pimentel, J. S. (2010). Quality of individualized education program goals of preschoolers with disabilities. Infants & Young Children: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Early Childhood Intervention, 23(3), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e3181e45925 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0b013e3181e45925

Burns, M. K., Lembke, E. S., Duesenberg‐Marshall, M. D., Hopkins, S., Hirt, S., Romero, M. E., Thomas, E., Steinbauer, J. A., Del Gaiso, A., & Crooks, S. (2023). The relationship between quality of the present level of academic achievement and functional performance statement and student learning. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 23(4), 365-374. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12606 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12606

Carter, M., Stephenson, J., & Carlon, S. (2020). Data-based decision-making. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1210 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.1210

Catone, W. V., & Brady, S. A. (2005). The inadequacy of Individual Educational Program (IEP) goals for high school students with word-level reading difficulties. Annals of Dyslexia, 55(1), 53–78. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-005-0004-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11881-005-0004-9

Council for Exceptional Children. (2015). Initial special education preparation standards. https://exceptionalchildren.org/standards/initial-special-education-preparation-standards

Council for Exceptional Children & CEEDAR Center. (2017). High-leverage practices. https://highleveragepractices.org/high-leverage-practices

Council of Chief State School Officers (2013). Interstate teacher assessment and support consortium (InTASC) model core teaching standards and learning progressions for teachers 1.0: A resource for ongoing teacher development. [PDF file]. CCSSO. https://ccsso.org/sites/default/files/2017-12/2013_INTASC_Learning_Progressions_for_Teachers.pdf

District of Columbia, 709 F. Supp. 2d 57 (D.D.C. 2010)

Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Pub. L. No. 94-142, 89 Stat. 773 (1975). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-89/pdf/STATUTE-89-Pg773.pdf

Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District, 798 F.3d 1329 (10th Cir. 2015), 137 S. Ct. 988 (2017).

Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District, No. 14-1417 (10th Cir. Aug. 25, 2015).

Espin, C. A., van den Bosch, R. M., van der Liende, M., Rippe, R. C., Beutick, M., Langa, A., & Mol, S. E. (2021). A systematic review of CBM professional development materials: Are teachers receiving sufficient instruction in data-based decision-making? Journal of Learning Disabilities, 54(4), 256-268. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219421997103 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219421997103

Feng, L., & Sass, T. R. (2017). Teacher quality and teacher mobility. Education Finance and Policy, 12(3), 396-418. https://doi.org/10.1162/edfp_a_00214 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1162/EDFP_a_00214

Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., & Stecker, P. M. (2021). Bringing data-based individualization to scale: A call for the next-generation technology of teacher supports. Journal of learning disabilities, 54(5), 319–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420950654 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219420950654

Gartin B. C., Murdick N. L. (2005). IDEA 2004: The IEP. Remedial and Special Education, 26(4), 327–331. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ722327 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325050260060301

Gary B. et al. v. Whitmer, No. 18-1855 (6th Cir. 2020)

Gisev, N., Bell, J. S., & Chen, T. F. (2013). Interrater agreement and interrater reliability: key concepts, approaches, and applications. Research in Social & Administrative Pharmacy, 9(3), 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2012.04.004 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2012.04.004

Goldhaber, D., Gross, B., & Player, D. (2011). Teacher career paths, teacher quality, and persistence in the classroom: Are public schools keeping their best? Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 30(1), 57-87. https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20549 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.20549

Good, C. J. (2010). A Nation at Risk; A scare tactic to change public education during the Reagan years? Committee members speak their mind. American Educational History Journal, 37(2), 367-386. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ911589

Goran, L., Harkins Monaco, E.A., Yell, M.L., Shriner, J. & Bateman, D. (2020) Pursuing academic and functional advancement: goals, services, and measuring progress. Teaching Exceptional Children, 52(5), 333–343. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059920919924 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059920919924

Hallgren, K. A. (2012). Computing inter-rater reliability for observational data: An overview and tutorial. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology, 8(1), 23-34. https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.08.1.p023 DOI: https://doi.org/10.20982/tqmp.08.1.p023

Hawkins, D. (2012). Evaluating the relationship between individualized education program compliance for middle school students with specific learning disabilities and academic achievement based upon state reading summative assessment scores (3525551) [Doctoral dissertation, Seattle Pacific University]. ProQuest, LLC. https://www.proquest.com/docview/1040872885

Hedin, L., & DeSpain, S. (2018). SMART or not? Writing specific, measurable IEP goals. Teaching Exceptional Children, 51(2), 100-110. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059918802587 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059918802587

Hill, J. A. (2004). A comparison of assessment report formats (Publication No. 3155979) [Doctoral dissertation, New Mexico State University]. ProQuest Dissertations Publishing.

Hott, B. L., Jones, B. A., Randolph, K. M., Kuntz, E., McKenna, J. W., & Brigham, F. J. (2021). Lessons learned from a descriptive review of rural individualized education programs. Journal of Special Education, 55(3), 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920972670 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466920972670

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, Pub. L. no. 108 – 446. 118 Stat. 2647 (2004). https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-108publ446/pdf/PLAW-108publ446.pdf

Ingersoll R., Merrill L., May H. (2012). Retaining teachers: How preparation matters. Educational Leadership, 6(8), 30–34.

Institute of Education Sciences. (n.d). Why diploma types matter. Department of Education. https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/edLabs/regions/appalachia/events/materials/VLDS_03.pdf

IRIS Center. (n.d.). Page 6: High-quality PLAAFP statements. https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/iep01/cresource/q3/p06/

Jonsson, A., & Svingby, G. (2007). The use of scoring rubrics: Reliability, validity and educational consequences. Educational Research Review, 2(2), 130-144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2007.05.002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2007.05.002

Kauffman, J. M., Wiley, A. L., Travers, J. C., Badar, J., & Anastasiou, D. (2019). Endrew and FAPE: Concepts and implications for all students with disabilities. Behavior Modification, 45(1), 177-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445519832990 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445519832990

Kirby v. Cabell County Board of Education, 46 IDELR 156 (S.D. W.V. 2006).

Kuntz, E. M., Massey, C. C., Peltier, C., Barczak, M., & Crowson, H. M. (2023). Graph manipulation and the impact on pre-service teachers’ accuracy in evaluating progress monitoring data. Teacher Education and Special Education, 46(1), 65-82. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064221086991 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064221086991

Kurth, J. A., Lockman-Turner, E., Burke, K., & Ruppar, A. L. (2021). Curricular philosophies reflected in individualized education program goals for students with complex support needs. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 59(4), 283-294. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-59.4.283 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-59.4.283

La Salle, T. P., Roach, A. T., & McGrath, D. (2013). The relationship of IEP quality to curricular access and academic achievement for students with disabilities. International Journal of Special Education, 28(1), 135–144. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1013681

Lombardi, A. R., Kern, L., Flannery, K. B., & Doren, B. (2017). Is college and career readiness adequately addressed in annual and postsecondary goals? Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 28(3), 150–161. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207317716147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207317716147

Markelz, A. M., Nagro, S. A., Szocik, K., Monnin, K., Gerry, M., Macedonia, A., & Mason, A. (2022). The nature and extent of special education law in teacher preparation. Teacher Education and Special Education, 45(3), 185-203. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064211046248 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064211046248

Mason-Williams, L., Bettini, E., Peyton, D., Harvey, A., Rosenberg, M., & Sindelar, P. T. (2020). Rethinking shortages in special education: making good on the promise of an equal opportunity for students with disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419880352 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419880352

McHugh, M. L. (2012). Interrater reliability: The kappa statistic. Biochemia Medica, 22(3), 276-282. https://doi.org/10.11613/bm.2012.031 DOI: https://doi.org/10.11613/BM.2012.031

McKenna, J. W., & Brigham, F. J. (2019). More than de minimis: FAPE in the post-Endrew F. Era. Behavior Modification, 45(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445519880836 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445519880836

McLaughlin, M. J. (2010). Evolving interpretations of educational equity and students with disabilities. Council for Exceptional Children, 76(3), 265-278. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007600302

McWilliam R. A. (2009). Goal Functionality Scale III. Chattanooga, TN: TEIDS-Plus Study, Siskin Children’s Institute. https://ectacenter.org/~pdfs/topics/families/goalfunctionalityscaleiii_2_.pdf

Mitchell, D., Morton, M., & Hornby, G. (2010). Review of the literature on individual education plans. New Zealand Ministry of Education. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/5766/12625188_Literature-Review-Use-of-the-IEP.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

More, C., & Hart-Barnett, J. (2014). Developing individualized IEP goals in the age of technology: Quality challenges and solutions. Preventing School Failure, 58(2), 103–119. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2013.782533

Mueller, T. G., & Carranza, F. (2011). An examination of special education due process hearings. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 22(3), 131-139. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207311392762 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207311392762

Müller, E., Wood, C., Cannon, L., & Childress, D. (2022). Impact of an IEP goal builder on social goals for autistic students. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 38(3), 177-187. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576221125488 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576221125488

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: United States Department of Education. Retrieved April 20, 2022, from https://edreform.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/A_Nation_At_Risk_1983.pdf

National Council on Disability. (2005). Individuals with disabilities education act burden of proof: On parents or schools? Retrieved from https://www.ncd.gov/report/individuals-with-disabilities-ed-act-burden-of-proof-on-parents-or-schools/

Notari, A. R., & Bricker, D. D. (1990). The utility of a curriculum-based assessment instrument in the development of individualized education plans for infants and young children. Journal of Early Intervention, 14(2), 117-132. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381519001400202 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/105381519001400202

Pajak, E. (2011). Cultural Narcissism and Education Reform. Teachers College Record, 113(9), 2018–2046. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811111300904 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811111300904

Peyton, D. J., Acosta, K., Harvey, A., Pua, D. J., Sindelar, P. T., Mason-Williams, L., Dewey, J., Fisher, T. L., & Crews, E. (2021). Special education teacher shortage: Differences between high and low shortage states. Teacher Education and Special Education, 44(1), 5-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406420906618 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406420906618

Pretti-Frontczak, K., & Bricker, D. (2000). Enhancing the quality of individualized education plan (IEP) goals and objectives. Journal of Early Intervention, 23(2), 92–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510002300204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/105381510002300204

Roland M. v. Concord School Committee, 910 F.2d 983 (1st Cir. 1990).

Ronfeldt, M., Schwartz, N., & Jacob, B. A. (2014). Does preservice preparation matter? Examining an old question in new ways. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 116(10), 1-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811411601002 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811411601002

Rotter, K. (2014). IEP use by general and special education teachers. SAGE Open, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014530410 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014530410

Rowland, C. M., Quinn, E. D., & Steiner, S. A. M. (2015). Beyond legal: Crafting high-quality IEPs for children with complex communication needs. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 37(1), 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740114551632 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1525740114551632

Ruble, L. A., McGrew, J., Dalrymple, N., & Jung, L. A. (2010). Examining the quality of IEPs for young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(12), 1459–1470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1003-1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1003-1

Ruble, L., & McGrew, J. H. (2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(12), 2748–2763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1884-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1884-x

San Antonio Independent School District v. Rodriguez, 411 U.S. 1 (1973).

Sayeski, K. L., Bateman, D. F., & Yell, M. L. (2019). Re-envisioning teacher preparation in an era of Endrew F.: Instruction over access. Intervention in School and Clinic, 54(5), 264-271. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218819157 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451218819157

Schanding, G. T., Cheramie, G. M., Hyatt, H., Praytor, S. E., & Yellen, J. R. (2017). Analysis of special education due process hearings in Texas. Sage Open, 7(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017715057 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017715057

Shriner, J. G., & Carty, S. (2018). Utilizing IEPQ as professional development with staff. [Directors’ conference] Presentation at Illinois State Board of Education, University of Illinois, Springfield, IL, United States. https://www.isbe.net/Documents/Session-20-IEP-Utilizing-IEP-Q-PD.pdf

Shriner, J. G., Carty, S. J., Rose, C. A., Shogren, K. A., Kim, M., & Trach, J. S. (2013). Effects of using a web-based individualized education program decision making tutorial. The Journal of Special Education, 47(3), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466912453940 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466912453940

Sorensen, L. C., & Ladd, H. F. (2020). The hidden costs of teacher turnover. AERA Open, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858420905812 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2332858420905812

Sourdot, L. A., & Janak, E. (2021). Turning public schools upside down: Stranger Things as allegory for the birth of neoliberal education reform in the United States. Journal of Thought, 55(3/4), 59–78.

Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach's alpha. International journal of medical education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd DOI: https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd

UN General Assembly. (1948). Universal declaration of human rights (217 [III] A). Paris.

U.S. Department of Education. (2022). IDEA section 618 data products: State-level data files. https://www2.ed.gov/programs/osepidea/618-data/state-level-data-files/index.html

Utwin, M.S. (1995). How to Measure Survey Reliability and Validity. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Will, M.C. (1986). Educating children with learning problems. A shared responsibility. Exceptional Children, 52, 411-415. https://mn.gov/mnddc/parallels2/pdf/80s/86/86-ECP-MCW.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001440298605200502

Yell, M., & Katsiyannis, A. (2020). Redefining a free appropriate public education. In J. Rodriguez & W. Murawski (Eds.), Special education law and policy: From foundation to application. Plural Publishing.

Yell, M.L., Bateman, D.F., Shriner, J.G. (2021). Developing educationally meaningful and legally sound IEPs. Rowman & Littlefield.

Yell, M. L., Katsiyannis, A., Ennis, R. P., Losinski, M., & Christle, C. A. (2016). Avoiding substantive errors in individualized education program development. Teaching Exceptional Children, 49(1), 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059916662204 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0040059916662204

Yell, M. L., Rogers, D., & Rogers, E. L. (1998). The legal history of special education: What a long, strange trip it’s been! Remedial and Special Education, 19(4), 219-228. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259801900405 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259801900405

Young, V. M. (2018). Assessing the cornerstone of U.S. education reform. Educational Foundations, 31(3/4), 74–99. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1212039.pdf

Zettel, J. J., & Ballard, J. (1982). The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94–142): Its history, origins, and concepts. In J. Ballard, B. Ramirez, & F. Weintraub (Eds.), Special education in America: Its legal and governmental foundations (pp. 11–22). Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.

Zirkel, P. A. (2013). Is it time for elevating the standard for FAPE under IDEA? Exceptional Children, 79(4), 497-508. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900407 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900407

There are 83 references in total. Show More References

How to Cite

Claude, C. M., Nagro, S. A., & Brigham, F. J. (2025). IEP quality in focus: legal, research, and practical perspectives. Journal of the American Academy of Special Education Professionals, 20(3), 22-36. https://doi.org/10.64546/jaasep.587